Home  ›  What Is One Reason Women With Lower Education Levels Tend to Have More Children?

What Is One Reason Women With Lower Education Levels Tend to Have More Children?

Written By Saturday, April 2, 2022 Add Comment Edit

Lifelong voluntary choice to not have children

This article is about the choice not to accept children. For the inability to have children despite one's desire to take them, encounter Childlessness § Involuntary.

Voluntary childlessness, also chosen being childfree, describes the voluntary selection not to have children.

In most societies and for almost of human history, choosing not to have children was both difficult and undesirable. The availability of reliable contraception forth with support provided in erstwhile age by one's regime rather than one's family has made childlessness an option for some people, though they may be looked downwardly upon in sure communities.

According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, the word "childfree" first appeared sometime before 1901,[one] but being voluntarily childless or childfree as a tendency and portrayal of parenthood with skepticism in the mass media are gimmicky phenomena.[2] [iii] The meaning of the term "childfree" extends to encompass the children of others (in addition to i'due south own children) and this distinguishes it further from the more usual term "childless", which is traditionally used to limited the thought of having no children, whether by option or past circumstance.[4] The term "child free" has been cited in Australian literature to refer to parents who are without children at the electric current time. This may be due to them living elsewhere on a permanent basis or a short-term solution such as childcare.[5]

Reasons cited for being voluntarily childless [edit]

Supporters of this lifestyle, such as Corinne Maier, French author of No Kids: 40 Reasons For Not Having Children, cite diverse reasons for their view.[half-dozen] [7] [8] [ix] [10] [11]

Personal and social [edit]

An elderly woman with her pet rooster in Havana, Cuba. Some people may prefer pets to children.

  • Simply non wanting to accept children[three] [12] [13]
    • The brunt of proof is non on childfree people to justify why they exercise not desire to have children, but rather on the others to justify why anyone should[8]
    • Availability of effective contraception or sterilization makes the choice to remain voluntarily childless easier[14] [15]
  • Uncertain or ambivalent feelings about having children[16] [17]
  • Testimonies of parents who regret having children[vi] [7] [eight] [10] [18]
  • Positive attitudes and lack of regret of people who chose to not accept children[3] [sixteen] [19]
  • Other possibilities in life opening up due to the lack of children[17]
  • Lack of desire to perpetuate i's family line or pass on 1's genes[ix] [eight] [10] [13]
    • reluctance to replicate the genes of one'due south ain parents in cases of child corruption[ commendation needed ]
  • Lack of a suitable partner or difficulty getting married[20]
    • These trends are of import in countries where having children out of wedlock is highly unusual, such as China.[20]
  • Disapproval of societal handling and expectations of men and women[20]
  • General existential angst[3] [eighteen]
  • Unwillingness to cede liberty and independence to rearing children[vii] [9] [10] [11] [21]
    • unwillingness to give up the electric current lifestyle[22]
  • Being godparents or helping relatives heighten their children[14] [16]
  • Possible deterioration of interpersonal relationships[3] [xix] [23] [24]
  • Preference of having a pet over a child[7] [25]
  • Preference of pursuing personal development to raising children[11] [iii]
    • refusal to have one'due south needs and wants subjugated past those of someone else[11]
  • Unwillingness to disrupt one's current work and private home life[7]
    • career orientation and intellectual pursuits, which may exist at odds with parenthood[half-dozen] [7] [viii] [18]
    • preventing long-term disruption of slumber by crying immature children at night[seven] [9] [8]
    • not having to repeatedly clean upwards a child's mess[9] [10]
  • Dislike of (young) children'due south behavior and/or linguistic communication[6] [vii] [10]
    • the view that children are egocentric and difficult to handle[11]
  • Situation where one's partner already has children from a previous relationship and one does not take a need or justification to bear or begetter additional children[7]
  • Uncertainty over the stability of the parenting relationship, and the damage to relationships or difficulties with them getting children may cause[7] [8] [11] [3]
    • partner does not want children[12]
    • fearfulness that sexual practice may refuse[6] [26]
    • a long-term relationship or marriage might be in danger due to the stress created past children[six] [3]
  • Possibility of sex without the need, adventure, or willingness to get meaning by using birth control[7] [8] [9]
  • Concerns over the effects pregnancy has on the woman's body[27] (weight gain, stretch marks, drooping breasts, hyperpigmentation on the face, looser pelvic muscles leading to reduced sexual pleasure for both the woman and her partner, haemorrhoids, urinary incontinence,[28] expiry,[29] amid others)
  • Disapproval of perfectionist attitudes towards child-rearing in modernistic societies[6]
    • Every bit a society becomes amend developed, it is generally true that expectations of parental investment per child goes upwards, depressing fertility rates.[30]
  • Dislike of dedicated parents[6]
    • In North American English, the (pejorative) term for this is 'soccer moms'.[six]

Psychological and medical [edit]

Slumber disruption is a reason why some avoid having children.

Some people dislike pregnancy and immature children.

  • Pregnancy and childbirth can bring about undesirable changes:
    • substantial neurobiological changes leading to postpartum low, and feelings of insecurity and inadequacy, among other things.[31] Men can as well suffer from postpartum depression.[32]
    • lasting effects on women'due south health. In detail, inquiry suggests a causal link between gravidity and accelerated cellular crumbling, because energy is diverted from somatic maintenance to reproductive efforts.[33]
  • The health of one'due south partner does not allow for children[12]
  • Personal well-being,[34] health and happiness[35]
    • one'south health does not permit for children[12]
    • one already has enough bug of 1'due south own[11]
  • Existing or possible wellness problems, including genetic disorders that one does non want potential children to inherit[vii] [xi] and mental health issues[nineteen]
  • Not feeling the 'biological clock' ticking[36] and having no maternal or paternal instincts or drives[21] [22]
  • Fear and/or revulsion towards the physical condition of pregnancy (tokophobia),[27] the childbirth experience,[37] and recovery (for example the erosion of physical desirability)[ citation needed ]
  • Celibacy or a fear and/or revulsion towards sex and intimacy[38] [39]
  • Diverse fears (for case, of being trapped or disappointed) equally well as fears for the child[7]
    • fear of a long-term stressful responsibleness and performance anxiety[11]
    • fear of not being able to love ane'due south child[seven]
    • fear that one will requite birth to a disabled child and taking intendance of whom is challenging[seven]
    • hard to suit, or pay for, child intendance[12]
    • fearfulness that i's child may grow up to become an immoral person[11]
    • fear and/or revulsion towards children[forty]
  • Perceived or actual incapacity to be a responsible and patient parent[seven] [9] [12] [eleven]
    • conventionalities that other people are better suited to have children than oneself[eleven]
  • Belief that ane is besides old[xi] [22] or as well young to take children[xi]
  • Parents can become less empathetic towards non-family unit members.[41]

Economic and cultural [edit]

Modernistic welfare programs negate the need for children, some debate.

  • Rejection of the claim that the state'southward economy is at take chances if some people do not procreate[10]
  • Belief that very few parents really have children in club to support the state'due south economy[10]
  • Burden of taxes and debt[42]
    • Some use the term "wage slaves" when referring to having to pay taxes to support welfare programs such as pensions.[43]
  • Stagnant or falling wages[42] at the aforementioned time every bit high price of living[18]
  • Ascent cost of raising a child equally a club industrializes and urbanizes[42]
    • In an agrarian order, children are a source of labor and thus income for the family unit. But as it shifts towards industries other than agronomics and as more people relocate to the cities, children go a net sink of parental resources. This is known as the (first) demographic transition.[42]
  • Beingness decorated with work[44]
  • Unwillingness to pay the cost of raising a kid.[11] [12] For example, according to Statistics Netherlands and the National Plant for Budgetary Data (Nibud), raising a child cost an average of €120,000 from birth to historic period 18, or near 17% of i'southward disposable income every bit of 2019.[45] [46]
    • Inability to pay the price of raising a kid[11]
    • Hard to arrange, or pay for, child care[12] [44]
    • Parental leaves are non-existent or as well brusque[25] [44]
    • Expensive (higher) didactics[42]
    • Non having a support network, particularly when i is or risks becoming a single parent[ citation needed ]
  • Living in a fourth dimension of pestilence or economical recession[eighteen]
  • Irresolute cultural attitude towards children (known every bit the second demographic transition)[42]
    • A result of women's liberation, instruction, and rising workforce participation[42]
      • Women no longer need to ally and comport children in order to exist economically secure[20]
    • Transition from traditional and communal values towards expressive individualism[47]
      • In the Westward, adherents of the countercultural or feminist movements in the 1960s and 1970s typically had no children[48]
    • Growing sensation that childbearing is a choice[3]
    • Failing support for traditional gender roles,[3] and that people demand to have children in order to exist complete[iii] or successful[eight]
  • Unwillingness to burden one'south children with such intendance, or preventing a situation in which one'south premature death will orphan one's children (at too young an age), or cause them too much sorrow at one's deathbed[7] [8]
  • No demand for care by one'southward own children when one is erstwhile or close to dying
    • Ane tin exist cared for past the modern welfare state (including the establishment of retirement homes)[7] [8]
    • Having no children allows 1 to save more coin for retirement.[21]
    • Having children is not a guaranteed safety net for parent-child relations might exist strained[24]
  • Ability to donate one'due south inheritance to a charity of one'due south own choice instead of having to divide information technology among one'due south children[10]
  • Greater interest in and affordability of pets compared to children[three] [25]

Philosophical [edit]

Antinatalists such as philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer argued that having children is inherently wrong because life is full of suffering.

  • Ability to invest some of the time and coin saved by not raising children to other socially meaningful purposes[x]
  • Belief that one can brand an even greater contribution to humanity through one's work than through having children (for example by working for or donating to charities)[ten]
  • The view that the wish to reproduce oneself is a form of narcissism[9]
  • The opinion that non having children is no more than selfish than having them[18] [49]
    • Some even fence that not having children is an unselfish act[19]
  • Questioning of the demand for the next generation and refusal to be 'slaves' to the genes[50]
  • Belief that one can ameliorate contribute to the welfare of existing people (including children) than to produce fifty-fifty more[x] [11]
  • Belief in a negative, declining condition of the earth and civilization and in the demand to avoid subjecting a child to those negative conditions[eleven]
    • This includes concerns that calamitous events—effects of global warming, war, or famine—might be likely to occur inside the lifetime of i'due south children and cause their suffering and/or death[51]
  • Rejection of the common argument that a woman who does not having children is "missing out" or will exist more motivated afterwards some[xiv]
  • The view that ane'southward friendships and relationships with adults are sufficient for one's own happiness[vii]
  • The view that spending time with i'southward nephews, nieces or stepchildren is sufficient for one'southward own happiness[11]
  • Antinatalism, the philosophy asserting that it is inherently immoral to bring people into the earth.[52]
    • Antinatalists fence in favor of the asymmetry of pleasure and pain. The absence of pleasure is neutral whereas the absence of hurting is positive.[49] Hence, one may generally wish to spare a potential kid from the suffering of life.[52] [49]
    • Moreover, the parent tin never get the consent of the unborn child, therefore a determination to procreate would exist an imposition of life.[52] Nonetheless, some childfree people explicitly reject antinatalism; they may even similar the children of others, just simply do not want whatever themselves.[10]
  • Conventionalities that one is not 'missing out' on any of the alleged benefits of parenthood every bit long as one does non know what parenthood is similar[10]
  • Belief that it is incorrect to intentionally accept a child when at that place are and so many children bachelor for adoption[ citation needed ]
  • Conventionalities that people tend to accept children for the wrong reasons (east.yard. fright, social pressures from cultural norms)[x] [36]
  • Adherence to the principles of a religious arrangement which rejects having children[52] [49] [53] or the rejection of procreative religious beliefs imposed by one's family and/or community[ commendation needed ]
  • Belief that it is irresponsible to 'just attempt' what parenthood is like when one is all the same in doubt, as information technology burdens one with a responsibility to raise a child to adulthood once it's built-in, with no turning back when i is disappointed and regrets the decision[10] [fourteen]
  • Belief that one tin can even so contribute to 'the education of children to become happy and empathic beings' that a lodge needs (for example, by being a teacher or babysitter) without being a parent oneself[ten]
  • Opposition to commercialism, believed to necessitate procreation[6]
  • Opinion that the traditional family is "a corrupt, energy-absorbing, destructive, wasteful institution"[54]
    • This is held by radical feminists.[54]
  • General discontent with modernistic society
    • Perception of the lack of common respect, human dignity, and privacy among individuals and institutions in mod societies; loss of faith in humanity
    • Perception of the inescapable, invasive use of modern technology and global surveillance; anticipation of a technological dystopian future
    • Social Darwinism and political polarization; general cynicism and existential nihilism

Environmental [edit]

Reduction of ane'due south carbon footprint for various actions

  • Rejection of the claim that the survival of the entire human species is at take chances if some people practise not procreate, especially in times of man overpopulation[55]
    • Conventionalities that very few parents actually accept children in society to preclude homo extinction[55]
  • View that man existence inflicts suffering upon other species just like the way they cause damage amid themselves via predatory practices[56]
  • Countering human being overpopulation and its effects past not reproducing[7] [x] [iii] [57]
    • Business regarding environmental impacts of human activities including population growth such as climate change, global warming, pollution, resources scarcity and famines, humanitarian crises such as refugee crises and resulting ethnic conflicts, loss of biodiversity or mass extinction[8] [11] [18] [51]
    • The belief that having 1 fewer child reduces one's carbon dioxide emissions significantly compared to, for instance, owning a car with improved fuel efficiency, replacing incandescent light bulbs with more energy efficient models, fugitive air travel, practicing comprehensive recycling, or adopting a vegetarian diet[58] [59] [51]
    • Worries over the breakdown of civilization[57]
  • Opposition to anthropocentrism[fifty] and belief in deep ecology, or putting non-human being lives commencement[43] [51]
  • Support for the eventual extinction of Homo sapiens [50] [56] [43]
    • Opinion that the voluntary extinction of humanity will exist non entirely a tragedy[56] but an act of empathy and nobility[50]

Statistics and research [edit]

General [edit]

Psychologist Ellen Walker argued that the childfree lifestyle had go a tendency in 2014.[3] The Cyberspace has enabled people who pursue this lifestyle to connect, thereby making it more visible.[13] [21] [49] Worldwide, higher educated women are statistically more than often choosing to remain childless.[9] Enquiry into both voluntary and involuntary childlessness and parenthood has long focused on women's experiences, and men's perspectives are oft overlooked.[eleven]

Asia [edit]

China [edit]

In China, the cost of living, especially the cost of housing in the big cities, is a serious obstacle to union. In the 1990s, the Chinese government reformed higher education in order to increase access, whereupon significantly more young people, a slight majority of whom being women, have received a university degree. Consequently, many immature women are now gainfully employed and financially secure. Traditional views on gender roles dictate that women be responsible for housework and childcare, regardless of their employment condition. Workplace bigotry against women (with families) is commonplace; for instance, an employer might exist more skeptical towards a married woman with one child, fearing she might have another (as the one-child policy was rescinded in 2016) and take more maternity leave. Altogether, in that location is less incentive for young women to marry. In addition, Chinese Millennials are less keen on tying the knots than their predecessors every bit a result of cultural change. Because this is a state where having children out of wedlock is quite rare, this means that many young people are foregoing children.[twenty]

The "lying apartment" move, popular among Chinese youths, as well extends to the domain of union and kid-rearing.[60] While the Chinese economic system is steeply ascent, explosive bloom of the real-estate market place mail-2008 has triggered an increment in business firm prices disproportionate to income and this is the commonly cited reason for childlessness and "lying flat" among the Chinese youth. A normal apartment unit in Beijing (with an average surface area of 112 square meters), for example, costs on average ¥7.31 million ($1.15 million)[61]and one would need to work non-end for at least 88.2 years at Beijing's average monthly income of ¥6906 ($1083.7)[62] without whatever expenditures to buy.

Taiwan [edit]

In Taiwan, it has become much more affordable for young couples to own pets instead of having children. In add-on, those who want children face obstacles such as curt motherhood leaves and low wages. Past 2020, Taiwan has go habitation to more than pets than children.[25]

Vietnam [edit]

As Vietnam continues to industrialize and urbanize, many couples have chosen to have fewer children, or not at all, especially in better developed and more densely populated places, such every bit Ho Chi Minh City, where the fertility charge per unit vicious to 1.45 in 2015, well below replacement. Ascent cost of living and tiredness from piece of work are among the reasons why.[63]

Europe [edit]

In Europe, childlessness among women aged 40–44 is most common in Austria, Kingdom of spain and the United Kingdom (in 2010-2011).[64] Among surveyed countries, childlessness was least mutual across Eastern European countries,[64] although i child families are very common there.[ citation needed ]

Kingdom of belgium [edit]

In March 2020, Quest reported that research had shown that, in Belgium, xi% of women and sixteen% of men betwixt the ages of 25 and 35 did non desire children.[nine]

Netherlands [edit]

Children infringe on freedom 54%
Raising children takes as well much fourth dimension and energy 35%
Partner did not want children 28%
Hard to combine work and children 26%
No compelling need/unfit 23%
Health does not allow for children 18%
Children price also much 7%
Hard to go child care v%
Reasons why Dutch women chose not to have children, 2004[12]

Co-ordinate to enquiry by Statistics Netherlands from 2004, 6 in 10 childless women are voluntarily childless.[12] It showed a correlation between higher levels of education of women and the option to be childfree, and the fact that women had been receiving better didactics in the preceding decades was a factor why an increasing number of women chose childfreedom.[12] The two most important reasons for choosing non to take children were that it would infringe on their freedom and that raising children takes also much time and energy; many women who gave the second reason also gave the commencement.[12] A 2016 report from Statistics Netherlands confirmed those numbers: 20% of Dutch women were childless, of whom 60% voluntarily, so that 12% of all Dutch women could exist considered childfree.[7]

In March 2017, Trouw reported that a new Statistics Netherlands report showed that 22% of higher educated 45-year-old men were childless and 33% of lower educated 45-yr-one-time men were childless. Childlessness amongst the latter was increasing, even though near of them were involuntarily childless. The number of voluntarily childless people amongst higher educated men had been increasing since the 1960s, whilst voluntary childlessness among lower educated men (who tended to have been raised more traditionally) did non get a rising trend until the 2010s.[65]

In March 2020, Quest reported that research from Trouw and Statistics Netherlands had shown that 10% of 30-yr-onetime Dutch women questioned had not gotten children out of her own selection, and did non wait to go whatever children anymore either; furthermore, 8.five% of 45-year-old women questioned and v.5% of 60-year-old women questioned stated that they had consciously remained childless.[9]

Sweden [edit]

According to a 2019 written report amongst 191 Swedish men anile 20 to l, 39 were not fathers and did not desire to have children in the time to come either (20.iv%). Desire to have (more than) children was not related to level of education, land of birth, sexual orientation or relationship status.[xi]

Some Swedish men 'passively' cull not to have children equally they feel their life is already expert every bit it is, adding children is not necessary, and they do not have to counter the same amount of social pressure to have children as childfree women do.[xi]

Great britain [edit]

A YouGov poll released in January 2020 revealed that among Britons who were not already parents, 37% told pollsters they did not want any children ever. 19% said they did not want children but might change their minds in the future and 26% were interested in having children. Those who did non want to be parents included 13% of people aged 18 to 24, twenty% of those aged 25 to 34, and 51% aged 35 to 44. Besides age (23%), the nigh popular reasons for not having children were the potential touch on lifestyles (10%), high costs of living and raising children (ten%), homo overpopulation (9%), dislike of children (viii%), and lack of parental instincts (six%).[22]

North America [edit]

Canada [edit]

The BBC reported in 2010 that around one-half of Canadian women without children in their 40s had decided to non have any from an early age.[xiv]

United states [edit]

Being a childfree American adult was considered unusual in the 1950s.[66] [67] Still, the proportion of childfree adults in the population has increased significantly since then. A 2006 study by Abma and Martinez found that American women aged 35 to 44 who were voluntarily childless constituted five% of all U.South. women in 1982, viii% in 1988, nine% in 1995 and 7% in 2002. These women had the highest income, prior work experience and the lowest religiosity compared to other women.[68] Research by sociologist Kristin Park revealed that childfree people tended to be improve educated, to be professionals, to live in urban areas, to be less religious, and to have less conventional life choices.[21] [69]

From 2007 to 2011 the fertility rate in the U.Due south. declined nine%, the Pew Research Middle reporting in 2010 that the nascence rate was the lowest in U.Southward. history and that childlessness rose across all racial and indigenous groups to virtually one in five versus 1 in 10 in the 1970s; it did not say which pct of childless Americans were so voluntarily, but Time claimed that, despite persisting discrimination against especially women who chose to remain childless, acceptance of being childfree was gradually increasing.[36]

Co-ordinate to a cross-generational study comparing millennials to Generation X conducted at Wharton School of Business concern, more than than half of Millennial undergraduates surveyed do not plan to take children. The researchers compared surveys of the Wharton graduating class of 1992 and 2012. In 1992, 78% of women planned to eventually have children dropping to 42% in 2012. The results were similar for male students. The enquiry revealed among both genders the proportion of undergraduates who reported they eventually planned to have children had dropped in half over the form of a generation.[70] [71] [72]

Psychologist Paul Dolan made the case that women who never married or have children are among the happiest subgroup in the The states by analyzing American Time Use Survey.[35]

Waren and Pals (2013) establish that voluntary childlessness in the United States was more mutual among higher educated women but not higher educated men.[11]

Oceania [edit]

New Zealand [edit]

Statistics New Zealand estimated that the share of childfree women grew from nether x% in 1996 to around fifteen% in 2013. Professional women were the virtually likely to be without children, at xvi%, compared with 12% for manual workers. At least v% of women were childfree past choice.[73]

Social attitudes to remaining childfree [edit]

Most societies place a high value on parenthood in developed life, then that people who remain childfree are sometimes stereotyped as being "individualistic" people who avoid social responsibility and are less prepared to commit themselves to helping others.[74] However, certain groups believe that beingness childfree is beneficial. With the advent of environmentalism and concerns for stewardship, those choosing to not have children are also sometimes recognized every bit helping reduce our touch on. Some childfree are sometimes lauded on moral grounds, such as members of philosophical or religious groups, similar the Shakers.[ citation needed ]

There are iii wide areas of criticism regarding childfreeness, based upon socio-political, feminist or religious reasons.[ commendation needed ] There are likewise considerations relating to personal philosophy and social roles.[ citation needed ]

Feminism [edit]

Feminist author Daphne DeMarneffe links larger feminist issues to both the devaluation of motherhood in gimmicky society, also as the delegitimization of "maternal desire" and pleasure in motherhood.[75] In tertiary-wave handbook Manifesta: Young Women, Feminism, and the Future, authors Jennifer Baumgardner and Amy Richards explore the concept of tertiary-moving ridge feminists reclaiming "girlie" culture, forth with reasons why women of Babe Boomer and Generation X ages may reject motherhood because, at a young and impressionable age, they witnessed their own mothers beingness devalued by society and family.[76]

On the other hand, in "The Bust Guide to the New Girl Order"[77] and in Utne Reader magazine, tertiary-wave feminist writer Tiffany Lee Brown described the joys and freedoms of childfree living, freedoms such as travel previously associated with males in Western culture. In "Maternity Lite", she celebrates beingness an aunt, co-parent, or family unit friend over the idea of beingness a female parent.[78]

Overpopulation [edit]

Some believe that overpopulation is a serious problem and some question the fairness of what they feel corporeality to subsidies for having children, such equally the Earned Income Tax Credit (The states), free Thou–12 pedagogy paid for by all taxpayers, family medical leave, and other such programs.[79] Others, notwithstanding, do not believe overpopulation to exist a trouble in itself; regarding such problems as overcrowding, global warming, and straining food supplies to be problems of public policy and/or engineering science.[80]

Some have argued that this sort of conscientiousness is cocky-eliminating (assuming information technology is heritable), so by avoiding reproduction for ethical reasons the childfree will only aid in the deterioration of concern for the environment and future generations.[81] [82]

Authorities and taxes [edit]

Some regard governmental or employer-based incentives offered just to parents—such equally a per-child income tax credit, preferential absenteeism planning, employment legislation, or special facilities—as intrinsically discriminatory, arguing for their removal, reduction, or the formation of a corresponding system of matching incentives for other categories of social relationships. Childfree advocates argue that other forms of caregiving take historically not been considered equal—that "just babies count"—and that this is an outdated idea that is in need of revision. Caring for sick, disabled, or elderly dependents entails significant financial and emotional costs but is not currently subsidized in the same manner. This commitment has traditionally and increasingly fallen largely on women, contributing to the feminization of poverty in the U.South.[83]

The focus on personal acceptance is mirrored in much of the literature surrounding choosing not to reproduce. Many early books were grounded in feminist theory and largely sought to dispel the idea that womanhood and motherhood were necessarily the same thing, arguing, for example, that childfree people confront not but social discrimination just political discrimination as well.[79]

Religion [edit]

Abrahamic religions such as Judaism, Christianity, and Islam identify a high value on children and their key place in marriage.[ commendation needed ] In numerous works, including an Churchly alphabetic character written in 1988,[84] Pope John Paul II has set up forth the Roman Cosmic emphasis on the role of children in family life. Even so, the Catholic Church building also stresses the value of chastity.[ citation needed ]

There are, however, some debates within religious groups about whether a childfree lifestyle is acceptable. Some other view, for example, is that the biblical verse "Exist fruitful and multiply" in Genesis one:28, is really not a command simply a blessing formula.[85] Alternatively, some Christians assert the conventionalities that Genesis 1:28 is a moral command but withal believe that voluntary childlessness is ethical if a higher ethical principle intervenes to brand child bearing imprudent in comparison. Health concerns, a calling to serve orphans, serving as missionaries in a unsafe location etc. are all examples that would make childbearing imprudent for a Christian. A small activist grouping, the Cyber-Church building of Jesus Christ Childfree, defends this view, "Jesus loved children only chose to never have whatsoever, so that he could devote his life to telling the Good News."[86]

Upstanding reasons [edit]

Essayist Brian Tomasik cites ethical reasons for people to remain childfree. Also, they will have more than fourth dimension to focus on themselves, which will let for greater inventiveness and the exploration of personal ambitions. In this manner, they may benefit themselves and society more than than if they had a child.[87]

The "selfish" issue [edit]

Some opponents of the childfree choice consider such a choice to exist selfish. The rationale of this position is the assertion that raising children is a very of import action and so not engaging in this activeness must therefore mean living ane'southward life in service to ane's self. The value judgment behind this idea is that individuals should endeavor to make some kind of meaningful contribution to the earth, but also that the best way to make such a contribution is to accept children. For some people, ane or both of these assumptions may be true, but others prefer to direct their time, energy, and talents elsewhere, in many cases toward improving the earth that today'due south children occupy (and that future generations will inherit).[88]

Proponents of childfreedom posit that choosing not to have children is no more or less selfish than choosing to take children. Choosing to have children may be the more selfish choice, particularly when poor parenting risks creating many long term problems for both the children themselves and society at large.[89] As philosopher David Benatar explains, at the heart of the decision to bring a child into the earth frequently lies the parents' own desires (to enjoy child-rearing or perpetuate one's legacy/genes), rather than the potential person's interests. At the very least, Benatar believes this illustrates why a childfree person may be just as altruistic as any parent.[90]

There is also the question as to whether having children really is such a positive contribution to the globe in an historic period when in that location are many concerns about overpopulation, pollution and depletion of non-renewable resources. This is specially truthful for the wealthy 1% of global population who consume disproportionate amounts of resources and who are responsible for 15% of global carbon emissions.[91] Some critics counter that such analyses of having children may understate its potential benefits to society (due east.k. a greater labor forcefulness, which may provide greater opportunity to solve social problems) and overstate the costs. That is, there is often a need for a not-zero nascence rate.[92]

Stigma [edit]

People who express the fact that they accept voluntarily chosen to remain childless are frequently subjected to several forms of bigotry.[14] The determination not to have children has been attributed to insanity or derided as "unnatural", and oftentimes childfree people are subjected to unsolicited questioning by friends, family unit, colleagues, acquaintances and even strangers who attempt to forcefulness them to justify and modify their decision.[xiv] [8] [eleven] Some British childfree women have compared their experiences of coming out as childfree to coming out every bit gay in the mid-20th century.[xiv] Some Canadian women preferred non to express their decision to remain childless for fear of encountering social pressure to change their decision.[14] Some women are told to first have a child earlier beingness able to properly decide that they practise non want ane.[fourteen] Some parents effort to pressure their children into producing grandchildren and threaten to or actually disown them if they do not.[xiv] [10] Some childfree women are told they would make adept mothers, or only "haven't met the right human yet", are assumed to be infertile rather than having made a witting conclusion not to brand employ of their fertility (whether applicable or not).[fourteen] Some childfree people are accused of hating all children instead of just not wanting whatsoever themselves and still being able to help people who exercise have children with things like babysitting.[xiv] [10]

Information technology has also been claimed that there is a taboo on discussing the negative aspects of pregnancy, and a taboo on parents to express regret that they chose to have children, which makes it harder for childfree people to defend their determination non to have them.[10]

Social attitudes about voluntarily childlessness have been slowly irresolute from condemnation and pathologisation in the 1970s towards more acceptance by the 2010s.[11]

Organizations and political activism [edit]

Childfree individuals do not necessarily share a unified political or economic philosophy, and most prominent childfree organizations tend to be social in nature. Childfree social groups first emerged in the 1970s and 1980s, most notable among them the National Brotherhood for Optional Parenthood and No Kidding! in Northward America where numerous books accept been written about childfree people and where a range of social positions related to childfree interests have developed forth with political and social activism in support of these interests. The term "childfree" was used in a July three, 1972 Time article on the creation of the National Organization for Non-Parents.[93] It was revived in the 1990s when Leslie Lafayette formed a later childfree group, the Childfree Network.[94]

The Voluntary Human Extinction Move (VHEMT, pronounced 'vehement') is an ecology movement that calls for all people to abjure from reproduction to cause the gradual voluntary extinction of humankind.[43] Despite its name, the move also includes those who practise not necessarily desire homo extinction but do want to curb or opposite human population growth in the name of environmentalism.[15] VHEMT was founded in 1991 by Les U. Knight, an American activist who became involved in the American environmental movement in the 1970s and thereafter ended that man extinction was the best solution to the problems facing the Earth's biosphere and humanity.[43] VHEMT supports homo extinction primarily considering, in the motility's view, it would prevent environmental deposition.[43] The movement states that a decrease in the human population would foreclose a significant amount of man-caused suffering.[43] The extinctions of non-human species and the scarcity of resource required by humans are frequently cited past the movement as prove of the harm caused by human overpopulation.[43]

In popular civilization [edit]

  • The novel Olive (2020) by Emma Gannon includes several voluntarily childless characters.[95] [24]
  • One character from the idiot box series True Detective (2014–19) upholds the anti-natalist philosophy.[52]

See likewise [edit]

  • Abortion-rights movements
  • Antinatalism
  • John B. Calhoun#Mouse experiments
  • Criticism of marriage
  • DINK
  • Individual action on climate alter
  • Fertility and intelligence
  • Population ageing

Antonyms [edit]

  • Natalism
  • Parent
  • Quiverfull

References [edit]

  1. ^ Child-free. Merriam-Webster Online Lexicon.
  2. ^ How Cinema Embraced the Silent Agony of Being A Parent Archived 2020-xi-09 at the Wayback Machine. The Guardian. July 26, 2018.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l thou northward Patel, Arti (December ten, 2017). "People who don't want kids: 'In that location'southward never been a day where I've regretted my determination'". Lifestyle. CBC . Retrieved March 17, 2021.
  4. ^ The obsolete term "childerless", meaning "without children" is given, for example in Oxford English Lexicon. Oxford University Press. 1971. p. 343. ISBN9780717285006. LCCN 76-188038.
  5. ^ Australian Constitute of Family Studies, 2011
  6. ^ a b c d due east f thou h i j Saunders, Doug (2007-09-29). "I really regret it. I actually regret having children". The World and Mail. Toronto. Archived from the original on 2018-10-21. Retrieved 2019-01-14 .
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j thou l m n o p q r s t u Saskia Aukema (xiii November 2016). "Hoezo heb jij geen kinderen?". Trouw (in Dutch). Archived from the original on 18 January 2021. Retrieved thirty May 2020.
  8. ^ a b c d east f thou h i j one thousand l m Lotte Stegeman (14 May 2020). "Waarom hebben zoveel mensen een kinderwens?". Quest (in Dutch). Archived from the original on 27 May 2020. Retrieved 30 May 2020.
  9. ^ a b c d e f 1000 h i j k Sebastiaan van de Water (20 March 2020). "Zijn er nu meer mensen dice geen kinderen willen dan vroeger?". Quest (in Dutch). Archived from the original on 29 May 2020. Retrieved xxx May 2020.
  10. ^ a b c d e f g h i j m l m due north o p q r southward t u Tobias Leenaert (2 September 2015). "Kindvrij vs kinderloos". Mondiaal Nieuws (in Dutch). Archived from the original on ane Nov 2016. Retrieved 30 May 2020.
  11. ^ a b c d eastward f g h i j chiliad 50 k northward o p q r s t u v west ten y z Bodin, Maja; Plantin, Lars; Elmerstig, Eva (Dec 2019). "A wonderful experience or a frightening delivery? An exploration of men's reasons to (not) have children". Reproductive Biomedicine & Social club Online. ScienceDirect. nine: 19–27. doi:x.1016/j.rbms.2019.11.002. PMC6953767. PMID 31938736.
  12. ^ a b c d east f thou h i j one thousand l Arie de Graaf (24 May 2004). "Childlessness and education level" (in Dutch). Statistics Netherlands. Archived from the original on 12 June 2020. Retrieved 31 May 2020.
  13. ^ a b c Tucker, Eleanor (November eight, 2014). "I used to estimate childfree women". Family. The Guardian . Retrieved March 17, 2021.
  14. ^ a b c d eastward f one thousand h i j grand l chiliad Paola Buonadonna, Vibeke Venema, Megan Lane (29 July 2010). "The women who cull not to be mothers". BBC News. Archived from the original on 7 December 2020. Retrieved 31 May 2020. {{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  15. ^ a b Fleming, Amy (June 20, 2018). "Would you requite up having children to save the planet? Meet the couples who take". The Guardian . Retrieved March 25, 2021.
  16. ^ a b c Zacharek, Stephanie (January 3, 2019). "Why I Take Zippo Regrets Near My Childless Life". Time. Archived from the original on December 11, 2020. Retrieved March 25, 2021.
  17. ^ a b Culhane, John (May 24, 2017). "For Many Queer Adults, Parenting Notwithstanding Isn't Part of the Picture". Slate . Retrieved March 25, 2021.
  18. ^ a b c d e f g Cain, Sian (July 25, 2020). "Why a generation is choosing to be child-gratuitous". Books. The Guardian . Retrieved March 9, 2021.
  19. ^ a b c d Scott, Kellie (December xvi, 2020). "Undecided about having kids? Reading this might assistance". ABC (Australia) . Retrieved March 25, 2021.
  20. ^ a b c d e Gan, Nectar (Jan xxx, 2021). "Chinese millennials aren't getting married, and the government is worried". CNN . Retrieved Feb 1, 2021.
  21. ^ a b c d eastward Friedman, Danielle (July xiv, 2017). "Why Some Women Don't Desire Kids, Childless past Choice". The Daily Brute. Archived from the original on December sixteen, 2020. Retrieved March 17, 2021.
  22. ^ a b c d Ibbetson, Connor (Jan 9, 2020). "Why do people choose to non accept children?". YouGov . Retrieved March 25, 2021.
  23. ^ The Hidden Cost of Motherhood Archived 2018-11-03 at the Wayback Machine. The Sydney Morn Herald. April 16th, 2018.
  24. ^ a b c "Emma Gannon: I'm made to feel guilty for non having children". BBC . Retrieved March 17, 2021.
  25. ^ a b c d Leggate, James (Nov 6, 2020). "More pets than children in Taiwan every bit birthrate drops, report indicates". Lifestyle. Fox News . Retrieved March 7, 2021.
  26. ^ na. ISBN9780549512509 . Retrieved four April 2018 – via Google Books.
  27. ^ a b Layhe, Ellie (September xiii, 2018). "Pregnancy phobia is existence 'driven by social media'". BBC Radio . Retrieved March 17, 2021.
  28. ^ Altman, Daniel; Ekström, Åsa; Gustafsson, Catharina; López, Annika; Falconer, Christian; Zetterström, January (2006). "Run a risk of Urinary Incontinence Afterward Childbirth". Obstetrics & Gynecology. 108 (4): 873–878. doi:10.1097/01.AOG.0000233172.96153.ad. PMID 17012448. S2CID 23797296.
  29. ^ Christian, Parul; Katz, Joanne; Wu, Lee; Kimbrough-Pradhan, Elizabeth; Khatry, Subarna M.; Leclerq, Steven C.; West, Keith P. (2008). "Risk factors for pregnancy-related mortality: A prospective study in rural Nepal". Public Wellness. 122 (ii): 161–172. doi:10.1016/j.puhe.2007.06.003. PMC2367232. PMID 17826810.
  30. ^ University College London (Feb 17, 2008). "Increased Life Expectancy May Hateful Lower Fertility". Science Daily . Retrieved March 17, 2021.
  31. ^ Motherhood brings the most dramatic brain changes of a woman's life Archived 2020-10-11 at the Wayback Machine. Boston Earth. July 17th, 2018.
  32. ^ Postnatal Depression: Fathers Can Suffer Like Issues to Women, Say Experts Archived 2020-10-28 at the Wayback Motorcar. The Guardian. Baronial ix, 2018.
  33. ^ Reproduction predicts shorter telomeres and epigenetic historic period dispatch amongst young adult women Archived 2020-09-xv at the Wayback Machine. Nature. July 23, 2018.
  34. ^ "Having children is non the formula for a happy life — Quartz". qz.com. Archived from the original on one July 2018. Retrieved 4 April 2018.
  35. ^ a b Cain, Sian (May 29, 2019). "Women are happier without children or a spouse, says happiness expert". The Observer. The Guardian . Retrieved March 17, 2021.
  36. ^ a b c Sandler, Lauren (August 12, 2013). "Having It All Without Having Children". TIME. Archived from the original on August 4, 2013. Retrieved August 4, 2013.
  37. ^ Hofberg; Brockington (2000). "Tokophobia: an unreasoning dread of childbirth". British Journal of Psychiatry. 176: 83–85. doi:10.1192/bjp.176.i.83. PMID 10789333.
  38. ^ "Fear of Sex (Genophobia) and Sexual Intimacy". Healthline. 12 April 2018. Archived from the original on 2020-08-11. Retrieved 2020-08-27 .
  39. ^ "Celibacy". Healthline. 29 May 2019. Archived from the original on 2020-09-02. Retrieved 2020-08-27 .
  40. ^ "Medical Definition of Fright of children". Medicinenet. Archived from the original on 2017-09-11. Retrieved 2020-08-27 .
  41. ^ Having Kids Can Make Parents Less Empathetic Archived 2020-09-thirty at the Wayback Auto. The Atlantic. November 18, 2015.
  42. ^ a b c d e f g Perry, Sarah (July 8, 2014). "Children aren't worth very much - that's why we no longer brand many". Quartz. Archived from the original on Feb 26, 2021. Retrieved March vii, 2021.
  43. ^ a b c d eastward f thousand h Knight, Les (10 January 2020). "I campaign for the extinction of the human race". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 10 January 2020. Retrieved xxx October 2020.
  44. ^ a b c Trung, Son; Nguyen, Quy (January 7, 2020). "Overworked Saigon women have no time to take babies". VN Express . Retrieved March 17, 2020.
  45. ^ Kaj van Arkel (26 October 2017). "Wat kost een kind?". Algemeen Dagblad (in Dutch). Archived from the original on 12 October 2020. Retrieved 30 May 2020.
  46. ^ "Hoeveel kost een kind tot zijn achttiende?". Quest (in Dutch). 28 May 2019. Archived from the original on 30 May 2020. Retrieved 30 May 2020.
  47. ^ Kaufmann, Eric (2013). "Chapter seven: Sacralization by Stealth? The Religious Consequences of Low Fertility in Europe". In Kaufmann, Eric; Wilcox, W. Bradford (eds.). Whither the Child? Causes and Consequences of Depression Fertility. Bedrock, Colorado, Us: Epitome Publishers. pp. 135–56. ISBN978-1-61205-093-5.
  48. ^ Longman, Phillip (October 20, 2009). "The Return of Patriarchy". Foreign Policy . Retrieved November 1, 2020.
  49. ^ a b c d eastward Bagchi, Shrabonti (February xv, 2019). "Within India's Anti-Natalist Cult". Alive Mint . Retrieved March 17, 2021.
  50. ^ a b c d "Sui genocide". The Economist. December 17, 1998. Retrieved March 17, 2021.
  51. ^ a b c d Schneider-Mayerson, Matthew; Leong, Kit Ling (2020-11-17). "Eco-reproductive concerns in the age of climate change". Climatic Change. 163 (two): 1007–1023. Bibcode:2020ClCh..163.1007S. doi:10.1007/s10584-020-02923-y. ISSN 0165-0009. S2CID 226983864. Archived from the original on 2021-01-xviii. Retrieved 2020-11-23 .
  52. ^ a b c d e Wolf, Chion (July 9, 2020). "You Didn't Ask To Be Here: Adventures In Antinatalism". WNPR . Retrieved March 17, 2021.
  53. ^ Kent, Due south.A. "Scientology -- Is this a Organized religion?". Marburg Periodical of Organized religion. 4 (ane): 1999. Archived from the original on 2011-09-29. Retrieved 2011-03-25 .
  54. ^ a b Garraty, John S. (1991). "Chapter XXXII Society in Flux, 1945-1980. Women'southward Liberation". The American Nation: A History of the United States. United States of America: Harper Collins. pp. 903–6. ISBN0-06-042312-9.
  55. ^ a b Janan Ganesh (20 September 2019). "Parenthood should exist taken off its pedestal". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 26 September 2020. Retrieved 31 May 2020.
  56. ^ a b c May, Todd (December 17, 2018). "Would Human Extinction Be a Tragedy?". The New York Times. Archived from the original on February 16, 2021. Retrieved March 17, 2021.
  57. ^ a b Angeloni, Alice (July 14, 2019). "New Zealand couples concerned for planet choose childless futures". Stuff . Retrieved March 7, 2021.
  58. ^ Should Nosotros Exist Having Kids In The Age Of Climatic change? Archived 2020-09-07 at the Wayback Machine. NPR. August 18, 2016.
  59. ^ Having children is ane of the most destructive things you can to do the environment, say researchers Archived 2020-10-14 at the Wayback Machine. The Independent. July 12, 2017.
  60. ^ Huifeng, He (Jan 6, 2022). "Why are China's Gen Z women rejecting marriage, kids more than than their male counterparts?". The South China Morning Post . Retrieved Jan ix, 2022.
  61. ^ two, 2022 "北京房价走势最新消息_2022年北京房价-城市房产网". February 2, 2022.
  62. ^ 2, 2022 "北京市薪资水平报告 (2022)". February two, 2022.
  63. ^ "Dropping fertility rates heighten warning". Vietnam News. July vii, 2017. Retrieved March 17, 2021.
  64. ^ a b "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2019-02-16. Retrieved 2017-01-02 . {{cite spider web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  65. ^ Melanie Zierse (thirty March 2017). "Kinderloosheid onder laagopgeleiden neemt toe". Trouw (in Dutch). Archived from the original on 18 January 2021. Retrieved 30 May 2020.
  66. ^ Cohen, Patricia (12 June 2010). "Long Road to Adulthood Is Growing Even Longer". The New York Times. Archived from the original on five Apr 2019. Retrieved 17 September 2017.
  67. ^ "Childless By Selection – childless couples an emerging demographic – Statistical Data Included". American Demographics. 2001-11-01. Archived from the original on 2005-07-02. Retrieved 2006-12-12 .
  68. ^ Abma, Joyce C.; Martinez, Gladys One thousand. (November 2006). "Childlessness among Older Women in the U.s.a.: Trends and Profiles". Journal of Marriage and Family unit. National Council on Family Relations. 68 (four): 1045–1056. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2006.00312.x. JSTOR 4122892.
  69. ^ Park, Kristin (Baronial 2005). "Choosing Childlessness: Weber'southward Typology of Action and Motives of the Voluntarily Childless". Sociological Enquiry. Blackwell Synergy. 75 (3): 372–402. doi:ten.1111/j.1475-682X.2005.00127.x.
  70. ^ "Life Interests Of Wharton Students". Work/Life Integration Projection. University of Pennsylvania. 2012-11-xix. Retrieved ane June 2016.
  71. ^ Anderson, Kare (5 October 2013). "Baby Bust: Millennials' View Of Family, Work, Friendship And Doing Well". Forbes . Retrieved i June 2016.
  72. ^ Assimon, Jessie. "Millennials Aren't Planning on Having Children. Should Nosotros Worry?". Parents. Retrieved 1 June 2016.
  73. ^ Collins, Simon (June 29, 2015). "The rising of childless couples - are Kiwis leaving it too late?". Lifestyle. New Zealand Herald . Retrieved March 9, 2021.
  74. ^ Keizer, Renske; Dykstra, Pearl A.; Poortman, Anne-Rigt (2011). "Childlessness and Norms of Familial Responsibleness in the netherlands". Journal of Comparative Family Studies. 42 (four): 421–438. doi:x.3138/jcfs.42.4.421. hdl:1765/101421. Archived from the original on 2020-01-26. Retrieved 2019-12-12 .
  75. ^ DeMarneffe, Daphne (2005). "Maternal Want: On Children, Honey, and the Inner Life". Back Bay Books/Little, Dark-brown, and Visitor. [ page needed ]
  76. ^ Baumgardner, Jennifer; Richards, Amy (2000). Manifesta: Young Women, Feminism, and the Future. Farrar, Straus, and Giroux. [ folio needed ]
  77. ^ Stoller, Karp, Debbie, Marcelle (1999). "The Bust Guide to the New Girl Order". Penguin.
  78. ^ Brown, Tiffany Lee (2001). "Motherhood Lite". Utne Reader. Archived from the original on 2012-10-08. Retrieved 2016-07-25 .
  79. ^ a b Burkett, Elinor (c. 2000). "The baby boon: how family unit-friendly America cheats the childless". New York: Costless Press. ISBN0-684-86303-0.
  80. ^ "Overpopulation Myths". Daily Policy Digest, International Problems. National Center for Policy Analysis. 1995-10-05. Archived from the original on 2006-12-03. Retrieved 12 December 2006.
  81. ^ Hardin, Garrett (December 13, 1968). "The Tragedy of the Commons". Science. 162 (3859): 1243–8. Bibcode:1968Sci...162.1243H. doi:ten.1126/science.162.3859.1243. PMID 5699198. Archived from the original on 2012-01-24. Retrieved 2008-01-25 .
  82. ^ Schneider-Mayerson, Matthew (2021-03-28). "The environmental politics of reproductive choices in the age of climate modify". Environmental Politics. 31: 152–172. doi:10.1080/09644016.2021.1902700. ISSN 0964-4016. S2CID 233666068.
  83. ^ Levine, Carol. Panel Presentation: Long Term Care and Caregiving. 1600 Pennsylvania Artery NW, Washington, D.C. Archived from the original on 2007-11-24. Retrieved 2007-04-xviii . {{cite conference}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
  84. ^ Pope John Paul Ii (fifteen August 1988). "Churchly letter Mulieris Dignitatem". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Archived from the original on 2007-01-07. Retrieved 12 December 2006.
  85. ^ Van Leeuwen, Raymond C. (September–October 2003). "Is It All Right for a Married Couple to Choose to Remain Childless?". Today's Christian Woman. Christianity Today International. 25 (five): 24. Archived from the original on 18 Jan 2021. Retrieved 12 December 2006.
  86. ^ "The Cyber-Church of Jesus Christ Childfree". The Cyber-Church of Jesus Christ Childfree. Retrieved 2006-12-08 .
  87. ^ Tomasik, Brian. "The Cost of Kids". Archived from the original on 2012-08-28. Retrieved 2013-01-10 .
  88. ^ English, Jane (December 1986). "Childlessness Transformed: Stories of Alternative Parenting". Earth Heart. Archived from the original on 2006-ten-18.
  89. ^ Leone, Catherine (1986). Fairness, Freedom and Responsibleness: The Dilemma of Fertility Option in America (PhD Thesis). Washington Country University. OCLC 29721613.
  90. ^ Benatar, David (2006-10-nineteen). "Better Never to Accept Been". Oxford University Printing.
  91. ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-ten-24. Retrieved 2020-10-25 . {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  92. ^ Landsburg, Steven Due east. (1997-04-13). "Exist Fruitful and Multiply". Slate. ISSN 1091-2339. Archived from the original on 2011-08-nineteen. Retrieved 2016-07-25 .
  93. ^ "Behavior: Downward with Kids". Time. 1972-07-03. Archived from the original on 2007-03-ten. Retrieved 2007-03-06 .
  94. ^ Cain, Madelyn (2001). The Childless Revolution . Purseus Publishing. p. 20. ISBN978-0-7382-0460-4.
  95. ^ Hampson, Laura (July 23, 2020). "Emma Gannon on her debut novel, podcasting during a pandemic and starting the internet's coolest book lodge". Books. The Evening Standard. Archived from the original on September two, 2020. Retrieved March 17, 2021.

Further reading [edit]

  • Gillespie, Rosemary (2003). "Childfree and Feminine: Understanding the Gender Identity of Voluntarily Childless Women". Gender and Society. 17 (i): 122–35. doi:ten.1177/0891243202238982. JSTOR 3081818. S2CID 145086015.
  • Hird, Myra J. (2003). "Vacant Wombs: Feminist Challenges to Psychoanalytic Theories of Childless Women". Feminist Review. 75 (i): five–nineteen. doi:10.1057/palgrave.fr.9400115. JSTOR 1395859. S2CID 144655316.
  • Benatar, David (2008). Better Never to Have Been: The Harm of Coming into Being. Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-199-54926-9.
  • Waisberg, Tatiana (2017). "The Terminal Front Line of Human Rights: The Childfree Choice and Women Empowerment". In Leal, César Barros; Muños, Soledad Garcia (eds.). Genero, Meio Ambiente e Direitos Humanos. Fortaleza. pp. 181–217. SSRN 3050988.

External links [edit]

  • Voluntary childlessness at Curlie
  • Reason.com – Why are People Having Fewer Kids?
  • "The Real Reason More Women Are Childless". Doublex. Slate. 12 July 2010. Retrieved four Sep 2011.

flannaganspleace.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voluntary_childlessness

0 Response to "What Is One Reason Women With Lower Education Levels Tend to Have More Children?"

Post a Comment

Subscribe to: Post Comments (Atom)

Iklan Atas Artikel

Iklan Tengah Artikel 1

Iklan Tengah Artikel 2

Iklan Bawah Artikel